Risks Associated with School Suspension, Expulsion

Suspension or expulsion from school are methods often used to decrease violence, discourage drug abuse, and diminish criminal activity within the academic setting (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003). Additionally these punishments may be utilized as a way to deal with certain negative behaviors such as truancy (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003). The American Academy of Pediatrics (2003) found that between 74% and 94% of schools had a zero tolerance policy and that 90% of Americans supported such policies. Zero tolerance refers to the enforcement of an automatic punishment for infractions of a stated rule with the intention of eliminating undesirable behavior or conduct. Despite such strong approval from the American public, the American Bar Association (ABA) voted in 2001 to end "zero tolerance" as a set standard. The ABA reasoned that it is wrong to mandate  suspension/expulsion for a student or refer him or her to juvenile court without taking into consideration the individual circumstances surrounding the infraction. The ABA also believed that a one-punishment-fits-all approach does not work and will not not deter a student from committing bad acts in the future.

A concern around the use of suspension or expulsion is the way in which this particular punishment may be applied more frequently to certain populations. Indeed, research has indicated that a certain type of student is more likely to be suspended or expelled from school. According to the 2000 census, children growing in homes near or below the poverty level are more likely to be expelled (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003). Similarly, children with single parents are between 2 and 4 times more likely to be suspended or expelled  even when controlling for other social or demographic factors (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003). The relationship between race and disciplinary action has also been considered as African American students are 2 to 3 times more likely to be suspended than white students (American Academy for Pediatrics, 2003; Gregory & Weinstein, 2008). Gregory and Weinstein (2008) found that the student typically suspended from school is male and from a lower socioeconomic background.

Are certain schools or districts really suspending students at significantly high rate?

Below is a comparison between the suspension rates in a few low income (top) and high income communities (bottom).

	Chelsea	Holyoke	Lawrence	Lowell	Lynn
Out of school	5	32.8	9.2	11.7	18.1
In School	1.4	7.5	13.8	7.4	4.4
	Andover	Concord-Carlisle	Harvard	Lexington	Weston
Out of school	1.6	0.6	0.9	0	1
In school	1	1.6	0	0	0.3

This data seems much in line with research indicating that low income students are much more likely to be suspended than their wealthier counterparts.

While consequences for negative actions are necessary, there can be many risks associated with out of school suspension or expulsion. The Academy of Pediatrics (2003) found that among children suspended or expelled from school there were high rates of depression and other psychosocial stressors such as domestic violence. These students are also more likely to come from homes where there is a general lack of supervision. Thus, those who are most likely to be suspended or expelled need the most adult supervision and/or professional help during the day. Despite this, students are routinely not referred to a medical or mental health provider after exhibiting school based behavioral problems. Because the suspended student is out of school and is not receiving professional help, risks for  the student include committing crimes, smoking marijuana, using alcohol or cocaine and engaging in sexual intercourse. Suicidal ideation or behavior has also been found to be more common during times of isolation from peers and a lack of professional assistance during the exclusion period may lead to permanent drop out (Academy for American Pediatrics, 2003). In a city like Holyoke with a high suspension rate and a low graduation rate (52.5%), medical or psychological assistance may be an especially necessary intervention.

The American Academy of Pediatrics provides some recommendations around school suspension. These include (but are not limited to):

• Establishing relationships with various health and social agencies in the community so students with disciplinary problems are readily referred for professional help.
• Matters related to safety and supervision should be explored with parents whenever the student is barred from attending school. This includes but is not limited to exploring the presence of household guns.
• Pediatricians should be encouraged to provide input or participate in multidisciplinary student support teams that can provide suspended or expelled students with a comprehensive assessment and intervention strategies
• A full assessment of the social, medical and mental health problems in order to ascertain factors that may underlie the student's behaviors and health risks. Consideration of appropriate referrals including drug rehabs, social agencies, mental health providers and other specialists who may assist with any underlying problems.
• Out of school suspension should be limited to the worst offense; the school should demonstrate how attendance at a school site, even in an alternative setting, would be inadequate to prevent a student from causing harm to himself or others.

Citations:

**Data taken from: www.doe.mass.edu

American Academy of Pediatrics (2003). Out of school suspension and expulsion. Pediatrics, 112, 5: 1206-1209.

Gregory, A., & Weinstein, R. S. (2008). The discipline gap and African Americans: defiance or cooperation in the high school classroom. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 455-475.

This Day in History: June 28

-The saxophone is patented by Adolphe Sax in Paris, France, 1846

-Labor Day becomes an official U.S. holiday, 1894

-Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, and his wife are assassinated in Sarajevo by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip. This leads to WWI, 1914

-The Treaty of Versailles is signed in Paris formally ending WWI between Belgium, Britain, France, Italy, the United States on one side and Germany and Austria-Hungary on the other, 1919

-John Elway, American football player, born, 1960

-Stonewall Riots begin in New York City, marking the beginning of the Gay Rights Movement, 1969

What Makes a Favorite Teacher

"My favorite teachers were those who took time to know me, especially in early grades...when test scores showed who needed that extra attention/help. Later years, the teachers who challenged me...

-L.C.

"[Those who] kept the material interesting, had a sense of humor and the ability to make the lecture seem more like a compelling conversation, rather than required content that needed to be retained."

-P.C.

"My favorite teacher was my Montessori pre-school/kindergarten teacher. I loved her teaching style so much that I went back to her school in high school and worked/volunteered as a teacher's assistant.

She treated (now retired) all of her students with respect. She had very high expectations of our behavior, and gently reminded us if we were misbehaving. Instead of yelling, "don't run inside," she would say, "please ask your feet to walk." She always said "please" and "thank you" to us. However, if you insisted on misbehaving, she would discipline you and explain why she was doing it.

She always spoke in a calm voice and kept her cool (even when someone let the class bird out of its cage). When I was older, I could see her unwavering patience with her students. It inspires me and helps me be a little more of a patient person."

-E.M.

This Day in History: June 20

-Queen Victoria succeeds to the British throne, 1837

-West Virginia is admitted as the 35th U.S. state, 1863

-Alexander Graham Bell installs the world's first commercial telephone service in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, 1877

-The "red telephone" is established between the United States and the Soviet Union following the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1963

-Holiday: World Refugee Day (International)

Historical Figure: Mohammad Mossadegh

Mohammad Mossadegh (June 16, 1882 - March 5, 1967)

Who

• Member of Iranian Parliament from 1920 - 1948

• Prime Minister of Iran from April 28, 1951 - July 16, 1952; July 21, 1952 - August 19, 1953

• Leader of the National Front 1949 - 1967

Brief History

Mossadegh received his bachelor of arts and masters in international law from the University of Paris (Sorbonne) before pursuing a doctorate at the University of Neuchatel in Switzerland. He started his political career at age 24 when he was elected to Parliament, known in Iran as the Majlis. In the late 1940s, Mossadegh founded the National Front, an organization aiming to establish democracy and end foreign presence in Iranian politics.

Most Known For

Nationalization of Iranian Oil in 1951

In the early 1950s, most of Iran's oil reserves were in the Persian Gulf area and were developed by the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) specifically for export to Britain. Britain had been heavily involved in the Iranian oil industry since 1901 when they were given oil concessions by the Qajar dynasty for no money. Popular support for the nationalization of Iranian oil became increased during the early 1950s as the general populace began to realize how little Iran was receiving financially from AIOC in return for its oil. Additionally, AIOC's refusal to 50-50 profit sharing (similar to an agreement reached by Saudi Arabia with Aramco) and the occupation of Iran by the Allied forces post World War II increased the Iranian people's desire to nationalize its oil. After efforts to negotiate higher oil royalties failed in 1951, the Majlis (Parliament) and Senate voted to nationalize the British owned and operated AIOC, taking control of its Iran's oil industry. 

Mossadegh was named Prime Minister in April 1951 and proceeded to nationalize Iran's oil industry on May 1, 1951. He also canceled its oil concessions due to expire in 1993 and expropriated its assets. Mossadegh's main goals included ridding Iran of foreign influence, eliminating "corruption and intrigue" and using oil revenues to combat poverty and disease. Despite nationalization, Iran was not completely free as Britain made sure that Iran could  not sell oil after Mossadegh would not allow any British involvement in AIOC. Britain enforced a de facto blockade that resulted in a substantial decrease in Iranian oil production. Two hundred forty million barrels of oil were produced in 1950, dropping to just 10.6 million in 1952. 

Due to continued hostilities regarding oil and concerns about communism and a Soviet influence in Iran, the United States and Britain worked toward removing Mossadegh from power in Operation Ajax/Boot. In March 1953, the U.S. and British governments under Dwight D. Eisenhower and Winston Churchill approved plans to overthrow Mossadegh with CIA involvement. On August 19, 1953, Mossadegh was detained after a successful CIA-backed coup; he was convicted of treason by the Shah's military court and imprisoned for three years, followed by house arrest. After his overthrow, the Iranian government reached a new oil agreement with the Shah's backing that gave the U.S. and Britain a large share of its oil.

Mossadegh died in 1967 while still under house arrest.

Legacy

• Was named Time magazine's Man of the Year in 1951
• Much of the discontent against Mohammad Reza Shah leading  to the 1979 Iranian Revolution stemmed directly from the overthrow of Mossadegh
• The 1953 coup served as a rallying point in anti-U.S. protests during the the Revolution and to this day as he remains one the most popular figures in Iranian history
• Iran under Mossadegh is considered to be the last period of democratic rule 
• In 2004, the Egyptian government changed a Cairo street name from Pahlavi (the surname of Mohammad Reza Shah) to Mossadegh in order to improve relations with Iran
  

The Importance of Teacher Relatedness

Research indicates that for students faced with difficulties or challenges in the academic setting, a sense of relatedness to someone within the school can serve as a motivator to remain engaged in the learning process (Furrer & Skinner, 2003). The term 'relatedness' can come to mean many things. Furrer and Skinner (2003) found that an adolescent’s feelings of teacher support predicted the value he or she placed on achievement as well as engagement and effort (Furrer & Skinner, 2003). Additionally, feeling important to key figures in the academic setting, most notably teachers, was found  to elicit positive behaviors such as persistence and participation and dampen negative behaviors such as anxiety (Furrer & Skinner, 2003).

'Relatedness' can also mean the ability to identity with a person based on a common racial, ethnic or cultural background, socioeconomic status or gender. Furrer and Skinner (2003) found that males, regardless of ethnic group, general feel a lower sense of relatedness to teachers than females. This is likely due in part to the fact that the majority of teachers are female. A report by the Pew Hispanic Center entitled "Latinos and Education: Explaining the Attainment Gap" (2009) found that Latinos consider a lack in teacher relatedness a main contributor to the poor academic achievement and educational attainment of their ethnic group; relatedness in this report was conceptualized as more in line with the second definition presented here. Among Latino adults age 26 and older, 47% stated that the different cultural backgrounds of Hispanic students and their teachers is a major reason that Hispanic students do not do as well as other students in school. The result was nearly identical for Latinos ages 16 -25 as 44% stated that a mismatch between student and teacher background was a significant factor in poor achievement. Thus, while, 62% of Latino youth strongly agree that the teachers in their high school are working or worked to help them succeed, relatedness was still a factor pinpointed by Latinos when discussing academic achievement.

Why is this important?

U.S. demographics are changing such that a substantial number of classroom are made up of mostly minority students. The Census reports that 92% of U.S. population growth over the last decade came from minorities of all types including those who identified as mixed race.; the Hispanic population alone grew by 43% during this time period. Despite this, teaching remains a white, female dominated field. In the Los Angeles Unified School district for example, 72% of the students are Latino, while only 32% of the teachers are Latino. U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan has specifically launched the TEACH program to attempt to diversify the teaching population.

Below is data taken from 4 diverse Massachusetts cities (all numbers are in percentages). Note the differences between the student and teacher populations.

Lynn
	Students	Teachers
African American	12.4	1.9
Asian	9.9	0.9
Hispanic	49.4	6.4
Native American	0	0
White	24.5	90.1
Other	3.3	0.7
Female	47.9	78
Male	52.1	22

Brockton
	Students	Teachers
African American	52	7.5
Asian	2.6	0.8
Hispanic	14.4	3.9
Native American	0.5	0.1
White	27	86.1
Other	3.5	1.4
Female	51.3	80.9
Male	48.7	19.1

Holyoke
	Students	Teachers
African American	3.4	1
Asian	0.9	0
Hispanic	77.2	24.8
Native American	0	0.1
White	18.2	73.5
Other	0.2	0.6
Female	48.1	80.7
Male	51.9	19.3

Boston
	Students	Teachers
African American	35.5	28.6
Asian	8.4	4.7
Hispanic	40.9	12
Native American	0.4	0.2
White	12.9	54.4
Other	1.9	0
Female	48.1	74.9
Male	51.9	25.1

While student achievement is not wholly dependent on a teacher's gender or race (or 'effectiveness' for that matter), diversifying the teaching population may be integral to keeping students engaged in school and therefore should be a high priority.

*All data taken from: www.doe.mass.edu

Other References:

Furrer, C., & Skinner, E. (2003). Sense of relatedness as a factor in children’s academic engagement and performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 148-162.

Lopez, M.H. (2009). Latinos and Education: Explaining the Attainment Gap. Pew Hispanic Center, 1-34.

This Day in History: June 10

-The first boat race between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge takes place, 1829

-Norway surrenders to German forces in WWII, 1940

-The Six Day War ends; Israel and Syria agree to a cease fire, 1967

-Pope John Paul II canonizes Lebanon's first female saint, Saint Rafqa, 2001

-John Gotti, American gangster, dies, 2002

Post-Secondary Plans Depend on SES

In terms of post-secondary plans, communities often differ on what their students intend to do for a variety of reasons. Below is a sample of the post-secondary plans for high school graduates in five low-income Massachusetts cities. Also included is the graduation rate.

	Chelsea	Holyoke	Lawrence	Lowell	Lynn
4 yr. Public/Private	30	23	35	47	30
2 yr. Public/Private	39	52	47	35	50
Other Post-Secondary	7	3	2	3	1
Work	9	0	6	4	8
Military	1	2	3	2	5
Other/Unknown	15	18	9	11	6
Graduation Rate	53.3	52.5	46.7	69.4	68.5

What is most glaring about this data is obviously the low to mediocre graduation rates for these cities. Lawrence in particular graduates less than half its students in 4 years. Still, a high percentage of the students that do graduate are attending college. Eighty-percent of Lynn graduates, for example, attend a 4- or 2-year college or university. In this sample, a considerable percentage of students join either the workforce or the military; many graduates also do not report their plans to their high schools.

High income communities in Massachusetts differ greatly in the post-secondary plans of their high school graduates. Below is a sample of four of the wealthiest Massachusetts communities.

	Andover	Concord-Carlisle	Wellesley	Weston
4 yr. Public/Private	92	94	93	95
2 yr. Public/Private	4	2	2	1
Other Post-Secondary	0	2	2	2
Work	1	1	1	0
Military	0	0	0	0
Other/Unknown	3	1	1	2
Graduation Rate	95.3	96.4	96.7	96

Unlike the low-income communities listed, these cities/towns tend to graduate nearly all of their students with almost all of these students attending a 4 year college or university. Interestingly, students in high income communities also attend private 4 year institutions at higher rates; in Weston, 84% of high school graduates planned to attend a private college or university. None of the graduates here planned to join the military and a very small, almost nonexistent proportion of students joined the workforce. 

From this data we see that the plans of high school graduates largely depends,  in part, on one's socioeconomic status. For those with more resources, one generally does not join the military or work after high school because college is more easily accessible and financially feasible. For a graduate of Lawrence High School or Lynn Classical, finances become more important such that a graduate of these schools may have to attend community college due to certain constraints. The debate around education reform has to some degree focused on the number of graduates that public schools send to college judging schools negatively if the percentage is 'low.' What is being disregarded is the reality that for some families college is not possible despite the number of loans, grants and scholarships available. Jobs at the present time are scarce and many  families are struggling to afford food and housing costs. Students from low income families often help support their families or care for siblings complicating the picture. The money that could potentially be earned while in school is also low because of a crunch on time. Many students may forgo college to earn money as a result. Additionally, for some, a college degree may not feel "worth" the costs associated with it, particularly if one is looking at serious debt. Some may also see peers who have graduated college, but are unemployed or underemployed leaving them with the belief the benefits of college are not worth the costs.

While all students should be exposed to potential post-secondary options, the complete focus on simply increasing the number of college graduates is misguided. Poverty is not destiny as some would say, but it does have a profound effect on what one is able to do and the options that a person may consider. Instead of disparaging public schools in urban areas for not doing "part", local, state, and federal governments should focus on specific (economic) policies that would allow for a larger number of opportunities for all.

All data taken from: www.doe.mass.edu